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อารยธรรมล มแม น ำส นธ อ งกฤษ Indus Valley Civilisation IVC เป นอารยธรรมย คส มร ดในภ ม ภาคตะว นตกเฉ ยงเหน อของเอเช ยใต ดำ

อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ

อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ
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อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ (อังกฤษ: Indus Valley Civilisation; IVC) เป็นอารยธรรมยุคสัมริดในภูมิภาคตะวันตกเฉียงเหนือของเอเชียใต้ ดำรงอยู่ตั้งแต่ราว 3300 BCE ถึง 1300 BCE และยิ่งใหญ่ที่สุดในช่วงปี 2600 BCE ถึง 1900 BCE อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ, อียิปต์โบราณ และ เมโสโปเตเมีย เป็นสามอารยธรรมยุคเริ่มแรกของโลก พื้นที่ที่เคยเป็นอารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุนั้นในปัจจุบันอยู่ในพื้นที่ของประเทศอัฟกานิสถาน, ส่วนใหญ่ของประเทศปากีสถาน และทางตะวันตกถึงตะวันตกเฉียงเหนือของประเทศอินเดีย อารยธรรมนี้เจริญรุ่งเรืองอยู่บนที่ลุ่มริมแม่น้ำสินธุซึ่งไหลผ่านตลอดประเทศปากีสถานและระบบแม่น้ำที่มีน้ำตลอดทั้งปี ซึ่งส่วนใหญ่ได้น้ำจากมรสุม และแม่น้ำตามฤดูกาล

อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ
image
ภูมิภาคที่ราบลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ ประเทศปากีสถาน และตามฤดูกาลสำหรับ ตะวันตกเฉียงเหนือของประเทศอินเดียและตะวันออกของปากีสถาน
สมัย(ยุคสำริดในเอเชียใต้)
ช่วงเวลาป. 3300 –  1300 BCE
แหล่งโบราณคดีต้นแบบฮารัปปา
แหล่งโบราณคดีสำคัญฮารัปปา, โมเหนโจ-ดาโร (27°19′45″N 68°08′20″E / 27.32917°N 68.13889°E / 27.32917; 68.13889), โธลวีระ, , and
ก่อนหน้า
ถัดไป
image
ซากอารยธรรมที่ขุดค้นของโมเหนโจดาโร ในแคว้นสินธ์ ประเทศปากีสถาน ในภาพคือ
image
ของเล่นจากฮารัปปา อายุราว c. 2500 BCE

เมืองต่าง ๆ ของอารยธรรมเป็นที่รู้จักในฐานะเมืองที่มีการวางผังเมือง, บ้านที่สร้างจากอิฐอบ, ระบบระบายน้ำและชลประทานที่ซับซ้อน, กลุ่มของอาคารที่ไม่ใช่เพื่อการอยู่อาศัย และวิธีการใหม่ ๆ ในหัตถกรรม (ผลิตภัณฑ์จากและการสลักตราประทับ) และความสามารถในการแยกโลหะออกจากแร่ (ทองแดง, สำริด, ตะกั่ว, ดีบุก) เมืองใหญ่สองแห่งของอารยธรรมคือโมเฮนโจ-ดาโร และ ฮารัปปา เป็นไปได้ว่ามีประชากรมากถึง 30,000 และ 60,000 คน และในช่วงเวลารุ่งเรืองสูงสุดอาจมีประชากรมากถึงหนึ่งถึงห้าล้านคน

หมายเหตุ

  1. Wright: "Mesopotamia and Egypt ... co-existed with the Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 BC."
  2. Wright: "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."
  3. Dyson: "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."
  4. McIntosh: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."

อ้างอิง

  1. Wright 2009, p. 1.
  2. Wright 2009.
  3. Giosan et al. 2012.
  4. Wright 2009, pp. 115–125.
  5. Dyson 2018, p. 29.
  6. McIntosh 2008, p. 187.

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  • Sengupta, S; Zhivotovsky, LA; King, R; Mehdi, SQ; และคณะ (2005). "Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists". American Journal of Human Genetics. 78 (2): 202–221. doi:10.1086/499411. PMC 1380230. PMID 16400607.
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  • Harappa and Indus Valley Civilization at harappa.com

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xarythrrmlumaemnasinthu xngkvs Indus Valley Civilisation IVC epnxarythrrmyukhsmridinphumiphakhtawntkechiyngehnuxkhxngexechiyit darngxyutngaetraw 3300 BCE thung 1300 BCE aelayingihythisudinchwngpi 2600 BCE thung 1900 BCE xarythrrmlumaemnasinthu xiyiptobran aela emosopetemiy epnsamxarythrrmyukherimaerkkhxngolk phunthithiekhyepnxarythrrmlumaemnasinthunninpccubnxyuinphunthikhxngpraethsxfkanisthan swnihykhxngpraethspakisthan aelathangtawntkthungtawntkechiyngehnuxkhxngpraethsxinediy xarythrrmniecriyrungeruxngxyubnthilumrimaemnasinthusungihlphantlxdpraethspakisthanaelarabbaemnathiminatlxdthngpi sungswnihyidnacakmrsum aelaaemnatamvdukalxarythrrmlumaemnasinthuphumiphakhthirablumaemnasinthu praethspakisthan aelatamvdukalsahrb tawntkechiyngehnuxkhxngpraethsxinediyaelatawnxxkkhxngpakisthansmyyukhsaridinexechiyitchwngewlap 3300 1300 BCEaehlngobrankhditnaebbharppaaehlngobrankhdisakhyharppa omehnoc daor 27 19 45 N 68 08 20 E 27 32917 N 68 13889 E 27 32917 68 13889 othlwira andkxnhnathdipsakxarythrrmthikhudkhnkhxngomehnocdaor inaekhwnsinth praethspakisthan inphaphkhuxkhxngelncakharppa xayuraw c 2500 BCE emuxngtang khxngxarythrrmepnthiruckinthanaemuxngthimikarwangphngemuxng banthisrangcakxithxb rabbrabaynaaelachlprathanthisbsxn klumkhxngxakharthiimichephuxkarxyuxasy aelawithikarihm inhtthkrrm phlitphnthcakaelakarslktraprathb aelakhwamsamarthinkaraeykolhaxxkcakaer thxngaedng sarid takw dibuk emuxngihysxngaehngkhxngxarythrrmkhuxomehnoc daor aela harppa epnipidwamiprachakrmakthung 30 000 aela 60 000 khn aelainchwngewlarungeruxngsungsudxacmiprachakrmakthunghnungthunghalankhnhmayehtuWright Mesopotamia and Egypt co existed with the Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 BC Wright The Indus civilisation is one of three in the Ancient East that along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World Childe 1950 Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B C Of the three the Indus was the most expansive extending from today s northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India Dyson Mohenjo daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30 000 and 60 000 people perhaps more in the former case Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities That said the vast majority of people lived in rural areas At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4 6 million people McIntosh The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase by the end of the Mature Harappan period the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million probably well below the region s carrying capacity xangxingWright 2009 p 1 Wright 2009 Giosan et al 2012 Wright 2009 pp 115 125 Dyson 2018 p 29 McIntosh 2008 p 187 brrnanukrm Allchin Raymond 1982 The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan ISBN 9780521285506 b k 1995 The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia The Emergence of Cities and States New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521376952 Brooke John L 2014 Climate Change and the Course of Global History A Rough Journey Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 87164 8 Cavalli Sforza Luigi Luca Menozzi Paolo Piazza Alberto 1994 The History and Geography of Human Genes Princeton University Press Clift PD Carter A Giosan L Durcan J aelakhna March 2012 U Pb zircon dating evidence for a Pleistocene Sarasvati River and capture of the Yamuna River Geology 40 3 211 214 Bibcode 2012Geo 40 211C doi 10 1130 G32840 1 ISSN 0091 7613 Cunningham Alexander 1875 Archaeological Survey of India Report for the Year 1872 1873 Vol 5 Calcutta The Superintendent Of Government Archaeological Survey of India Young Ruth 2015 The Archaeology of South Asia From the Indus to Asoka c 6500 BCE 200 CE Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 316 41898 7 Costantini L 2008 The first farmers in Western Pakistan The evidence of the Neolithic agropastoral settlement of Mehrgarh Pragdhara 18 167 178 Derenko Miroslava 2013 Complete Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Iranians PLOS ONE 8 11 80673 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 880673D doi 10 1371 journal pone 0080673 PMC 3828245 PMID 24244704 2018 A Population History of India From the First Modern People to the Present Day ISBN 978 0 19 882905 8 Fisher Michael H 2018 An Environmental History of India From Earliest Times to the Twenty First Century Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 11162 2 Flora Reis 2000 Classification of Musical Instruments in Arnold Alison b k The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music South Asia The Indian Subcontinent New York Garland Publishing Inc pp 319 330 ISBN 978 0 8240 4946 1 Fuller D Q 2006 Agricultural origins and frontiers in South Asia a working synthesis Journal of World Prehistory 20 1 86 doi 10 1007 s10963 006 9006 8 S2CID 189952275 Gallego Romero Irene aelakhna 2011 Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence Mol Biol Evol 29 1 249 260 doi 10 1093 molbev msr190 PMID 21836184 Gangal Kavita Sarson Graeme R Shukurov Anvar 2014 The Near Eastern roots of the Neolithic in South Asia PLOS ONE 9 5 e95714 Bibcode 2014PLoSO 995714G doi 10 1371 journal pone 0095714 PMC 4012948 PMID 24806472 Giosan L Clift PD Macklin MG Fuller DQ aelakhna 2012 Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109 26 E1688 E1694 Bibcode 2012PNAS 109E1688G doi 10 1073 pnas 1112743109 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 3387054 PMID 22645375 2015 The Indus Civilization ISBN 978 93 82381 53 2 Habib Irfan 2002 The Making of History Essays Presented to Irfan Habib Anthem Press Heggarty Paul Renfrew Collin 2014 South and Island Southeast Asia Languages in Renfrew Collin Bahn Paul b k The Cambridge World Prehistory Cambridge University Press 2011 The Indus Valley Proto Siva Re examined through Reflections on the Goddess the Buffalo and the Symbolism of vahanas in Adluri Vishwa Bagchee Joydeep b k When the Goddess was a Woman Mahabharata Ethnographies Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel Brill ISBN 978 90 04 19380 2 Jarrige Jean Francois 2008a PDF Pragdhara International Seminar on the First Farmers in Global Perspective Lucknow India 18 20 January 2006 Vol 18 pp 136 154 khlngkhxmulekaekbcakaehlngedim PDF emux 3 March 2016 Jarrige C 2008b The figurines of the first farmers at Mehrgarh and their offshoots Pragdhara 18 155 166 1991 The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India Journal of World Prehistory 5 4 1 64 doi 10 1007 BF00978474 S2CID 41175522 1997 Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley New Insights from Harappa Pakistan World Archaeology 29 2 High Definition Archaeology Threads Through the Past 262 280 doi 10 1080 00438243 1997 9980377 1998 Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 577940 0 Kenoyer Jonathan Mark Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition In Historical Roots In Thapar 2006 pp 21 49 Kivisild T Bamshad MJ Kaldma K Metspalu M aelakhna 1999 Deep common ancestry of Indian and western Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages Curr Biol 9 22 1331 1334 doi 10 1016 s0960 9822 00 80057 3 PMID 10574762 S2CID 2821966 Kumar Dhavendra 2004 Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent Springer ISBN 978 1 4020 1215 0 subkhnemux 25 November 2008 2002 The Sarasvati flows on MacDonald Glen 2011 Potential influence of the Pacific Ocean on the Indian summer monsoon and Harappan decline Quaternary International 229 1 2 140 148 Bibcode 2011QuInt 229 140M doi 10 1016 j quaint 2009 11 012 ISSN 1040 6182 Madella Marco Fuller Dorian Q 2006 Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilisation of South Asia a reconsideration Quaternary Science Reviews 25 11 12 1283 1301 Bibcode 2006QSRv 25 1283M doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2005 10 012 ISSN 0277 3791 Mallory J P Adams Douglas Q b k 1997 Encyclopedia of Indo European Culture ISBN 9781884964985 Manuel Mark 2010 Chronology and Culture History in the Indus Valley 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Countries from 1826 to 1838 Volume 1 London Richard Bentley Mathew K S 2017 Shipbuilding Navigation and the Portuguese in Pre modern India Routledge ISBN 978 1 351 58833 1 2008 The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives ISBN 978 1 57607 907 2 Michon Daniel 2015 Archaeology and Religion in Early Northwest India History Theory Practice Taylor amp Francis ISBN 978 1 317 32457 7 Morris A E J 1994 History of Urban Form Before the Industrial Revolutions 3rd ed New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 582 30154 2 subkhnemux 20 May 2015 Mukherjee Namita Nebel Almut Oppenheim Ariella Majumder Partha P 2001 High resolution analysis of Y chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India Journal of Genetics 80 3 125 135 doi 10 1007 BF02717908 PMID 11988631 S2CID 13267463 Palanichamy Malliya Gounder 2015 West Eurasian mtDNA lineages in India an insight into the spread of the Dravidian language and the origins of the caste system Human Genetics 134 6 637 647 doi 10 1007 s00439 015 1547 4 PMID 25832481 S2CID 14202246 19 May 2005 PDF khlngkhxmulekaekbcakaehlngedim PDF emux 6 March 2006 50th ICES Tokyo Session Parpola Asko 2015 The Roots of Hinduism The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilisation Oxford University Press Ponton Camilo Giosan Liviu Eglinton Tim I Fuller Dorian Q aelakhna 2012 Holocene aridification of India PDF Geophysical Research Letters 39 3 L03704 Bibcode 2012GeoRL 39 3704P doi 10 1029 2011GL050722 1912 5100 ISSN 0094 8276 PDF cakaehlngedimemux 2020 03 12 2002 The Indus Civilization A Contemporary Perspective Rowman Altamira ISBN 978 0 7591 1642 9 Possehl Gregory L 2002a Harappans and hunters economic interaction and specialization in prehistoric India in Morrison Kathleen D Junker Laura L b k Forager Traders in South and Southeast Asia Long Term Histories Cambridge University Press pp 62 76 ISBN 978 0 521 01636 0 Rashid Harunur England Emily Thompson Lonnie Polyak Leonid 2011 Late Glacial to Holocene Indian Summer Monsoon Variability Based upon Sediment Records Taken from the Bay of Bengal PDF Terrestrial Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences 22 2 215 228 Bibcode 2011TAOS 22 215R doi 10 3319 TAO 2010 09 17 02 TibXS ISSN 1017 0839 PDF cakaehlngedimemux 2016 03 10 Ratnagar Shereen April 2004 Archaeology at the Heart of a Political Confrontation The Case of Ayodhya PDF Current Anthropology 45 2 239 259 doi 10 1086 381044 JSTOR 10 1086 381044 S2CID 149773944 PDF cakaehlngedimemux 2018 04 21 2006a Trading Encounters From the Euphrates to the Indus in the Bronze Age 2nd ed India Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 566603 8 Ratnagar Shereen 2006b Understanding Harappa Civilization in the Greater Indus Valley New Delhi Tulika Books ISBN 978 81 89487 02 7 Sarkar Anindya Mukherjee Arati Deshpande Bera M K Das B aelakhna May 2016 Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization Scientific Reports 6 1 26555 Bibcode 2016NatSR 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619157S doi 10 1038 srep19157 PMC 4709632 PMID 26754573 2008 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century Pearson Education India ISBN 978 81 317 1120 0 1975 The so called Proto Siva seal from Mohenjo Daro An iconological assessment Archives of Asian Art 29 47 58 JSTOR 20062578 1997 Many Heads Arms and Eyes Origin Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art Brill ISBN 978 90 04 10758 8 Staubwasser M Sirocko F Grootes P M Segl M 2003 Climate change at the 4 2 ka BP termination of the Indus valley civilization and Holocene south Asian monsoon variability Geophysical Research Letters 30 8 1425 Bibcode 2003GeoRL 30 1425S doi 10 1029 2002GL016822 ISSN 0094 8276 S2CID 129178112 Sullivan Herbert P 1964 A Re Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization History of Religions 4 1 115 125 doi 10 1086 462498 JSTOR 1061875 S2CID 162278147 2004 Early India From the Origins to AD 1300 University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 24225 8 Thapar Romila b k 2006 the Making of the Aryan New Delhi National Book Trust 2009 The Ancient Indus Urbanism Economy and Society ISBN 978 0 521 57219 4 subkhnemux 29 September 2013 duephim 1997 Origins of a Civilization The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia New York Viking Aronovsky Ilona Gopinath Sujata 2005 The Indus Valley Chicago Heinemann Bar Matthews Miryam Ayalon Avner 2011 Mid Holocene climate variations revealed by high resolution speleothem records from Soreq Cave Israel and their correlation with cultural changes The Holocene 21 1 163 171 Bibcode 2011Holoc 21 163B doi 10 1177 0959683610384165 ISSN 0959 6836 S2CID 129380409 Basham A L 1967 The Wonder that was India London Sidgwick amp Jackson pp 11 14 Chakrabarti D K 2004 Indus Civilization Sites in India New Discoveries Mumbai Marg Publications ISBN 978 81 85026 63 3 1984 Short History of Pakistan Book 1 University of Karachi Mohen J P b k 1996 History of Humanity Volume III From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century BC New York Paris Routledge UNESCO ISBN 978 0 415 09306 4 Dikshit K N 2013 PDF Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology 9 khlngkhxmulekaekbcakaehlngedim PDF emux 18 January 2017 b k 1995 The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilisation Jodhpur Kusumanjali Prakashan 1996 The Indus Saraswati Civilization Origins Problems and Issues Delhi Pratibha Prakashan ISBN 978 81 85268 46 0 Kathiroli aelakhna 2004 Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat Gujarat Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology 1 141 149 Heuston Kimberly 2005 The Ancient South Asian World Oxford New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 517422 9 Lahiri Nayanjot b k 2000 The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilisation Delhi Permanent Black ISBN 978 81 7530 034 7 1998 India 1947 1997 New Light on the Indus Civilization New Delhi Aryan Books International ISBN 978 81 7305 129 6 1997 The Earliest Civilisation of South Asia Rise Maturity and Decline Lazaridis Iosif aelakhna 2016 Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East Nature 536 7617 419 424 Bibcode 2016Natur 536 419L 10 1101 059311 doi 10 1038 nature19310 PMC 5003663 PMID 27459054 Mani B R 2008 PDF Pragdhara 18 229 247 khlngkhxmulekaekbcakaehlngedim PDF emux 18 January 2017 subkhnemux 17 January 2017 McIntosh Jane 2001 A Peaceful Realm The Rise And Fall of the Indus Civilization Boulder Westview Press ISBN 978 0 8133 3532 2 Mirabal S Regueiro M Cadenas AM Cavalli Sforza LL aelakhna 2009 Y Chromosome distribution within the geo linguistic landscape of northwestern Russia European Journal of Human Genetics 17 10 1260 1273 doi 10 1038 ejhg 2009 6 PMC 2986641 PMID 19259129 1997 Ancient Cholistan Archaeology and Architecture Ferozesons ISBN 978 969 0 01350 7 Narasimhan Vagheesh M Anthony David Mallory James Reich David aelakhna Sep 2019 The formation of human populations in South and Central Asia Science 365 6457 eaat7487 10 1101 292581 doi 10 1126 science aat7487 PMC 6822619 PMID 31488661 Pamjav Horolma Feher Tibor Nemeth Endre Padar Zsolt 2012 Brief communication new Y chromosome binary markers improve phylogenetic resolution within haplogroup R1a1 American Journal of Physical Anthropology 149 4 611 615 doi 10 1002 ajpa 22167 PMID 23115110 Pittman Holly 1984 Art of the Bronze Age southeastern Iran western Central Asia and the Indus Valley New York The Metropolitan Museum of Art ISBN 978 0 87099 365 7 Poznik G David 2016 Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1 244 worldwide Y chromosome sequences Nature Genetics 48 6 593 599 doi 10 1038 ng 3559 PMC 4884158 PMID 27111036 1991 Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilisation New Delhi Aditya Prakashan ISBN 978 81 85179 74 2 Semino O Passarino G Oefner PJ 2000 The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans A Y chromosome perspective Science 290 5494 1155 1159 Bibcode 2000Sci 290 1155S doi 10 1126 science 290 5494 1155 PMID 11073453 Sengupta S Zhivotovsky LA King R Mehdi SQ aelakhna 2005 Polarity and Temporality of High Resolution Y Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists American Journal of Human Genetics 78 2 202 221 doi 10 1086 499411 PMC 1380230 PMID 16400607 1995 Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology in George Erdosy b k Indo Aryans of Ancient South Asia Berlin u a de Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 014447 5 Thompson Thomas J 2005 Ancient Stateless Civilization Bronze Age India and the State in History PDF The Independent Review 10 3 365 384 PDF cakaehlngedimemux 2010 02 03 subkhnemux 8 June 2020 Underhill Peter A Myres Natalie M Rootsi Siiri Metspalu Mait aelakhna 2009 Separating the post Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a European Journal of Human Genetics 18 4 479 484 doi 10 1038 ejhg 2009 194 PMC 2987245 PMID 19888303 Underhill Peter A aelakhna 2015 The phylogenetic amp geographic structure of Y chromosome haplogroup R1a European Journal of Human Genetics 23 1 124 131 doi 10 1038 ejhg 2014 50 ISSN 1018 4813 PMC 4266736 PMID 24667786 Wells R S 2001 The Eurasian Heartland A continental perspective on Y chromosome diversity Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 98 18 10244 10249 Bibcode 2001PNAS 9810244W doi 10 1073 pnas 171305098 PMC 56946 PMID 11526236 Willey Phillips 1958 Method and Theory in American Archaeology aehlngkhxmulxunkhumuxkarthxngethiyw omehnoc daor cakwikithxngethiyw inphasaxngkvs wikimiediykhxmmxnsmisuxekiywkb xarythrrmlumaemnasinthu Harappa and Indus Valley Civilization at harappa com

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